[36] Ant societies exhibit more intelligence, in terms of technology, than any other animal except for humans and co-operate in keeping livestock, for example aphids for "milking". [18] Woolley, A. W., Aggarwal, I. and Malone, T. W. (2015) 'Collective Intelligence and Group Performance', Current Directions in Psychological Science, 24(6), pp. This theory allows simple formal definition of collective intelligence as the property of social structure and seems to be working well for a wide spectrum of beings, from bacterial colonies up to human social structures. [25] In the United States antidepressants and tranquilizers are now the top selling class of prescription drugs, and neuroleptics and other psychiatric drugs also rank near the top, all with expanding sales. Gosney argues that the Alternate Reality genre of gaming dictates an unprecedented level of collaboration and "collective intelligence" in order to solve the mystery of the game.[154]. For example, estimating the weight of an object, or the release date of a product or probability of success of a project etc. [178], Skeptics, especially those critical of artificial intelligence and more inclined to believe that risk of bodily harm and bodily action are the basis of all unity between people, are more likely to emphasize the capacity of a group to take action and withstand harm as one fluid mass mobilization, shrugging off harms the way a body shrugs off the loss of a few cells. [12] Definition, operationalization and statistical methods are derived from g. Similarly as g is highly interrelated with the concept of IQ,[13][14] this measurement of collective intelligence can be interpreted as intelligence quotient for groups (Group-IQ) even though the score is not a quotient per se. In this way many take part in being one. [134] Collective intelligence is not merely a quantitative contribution of information from all cultures, it is also qualitative. [71] The "nanny state" was punitive, austere, and authoritarian, the therapeutic state is touchy-feely, supportive—and even more authoritarian. [61], The majority of these diagnostic categories are called "disorders" and are not validated by biological criteria, as most medical diseases are; although they purport to represent medical diseases and take the form of medical diagnoses. [63] It is now realized that the psychiatric diagnostic criteria are not perfect. [178] They go on to argue that intelligence is an achievement and can only be developed if allowed to. ... 2.2 Analyse how inclusive practice respects individual’s beliefs, culture, values, preferences and life experiences [41] Individuals who respect collective intelligence are confident of their own abilities and recognize that the whole is indeed greater than the sum of any individual parts. The increase in user created content and interactivity gives rise to issues of control over the game itself and ownership of the player-created content. In their view, the Internet enables collective intelligence at the widest, planetary scale, thus facilitating the emergence of a global brain. Non-psychiatric Soteria houses, starting in the United States, were also developed[33] as were various ex-patient-led services. [99] He stated that psychiatric abuse, such as people usually associated with practices in the former USSR, was connected not with the misuse of psychiatric diagnoses, but with the political power built into the social role of the psychiatrist in democratic and totalitarian societies alike. Adherents of his views referred to "the myth of mental illness", after Szasz's controversial 1961 book of that name (based on a paper of the same name that Szasz had written in 1957 that, following repeated rejections from psychiatric journals, had been published in the American Psychologist in 1960[34]). [12][42][48][68][82], In 2001, Tadeusz (Tad) Szuba from the AGH University in Poland proposed a formal model for the phenomenon of collective intelligence. In 1912 Émile Durkheim identified society as the sole source of human logical thought. Describe different working relationships in health and social care settings. 19–23. Part II: Impact of Managed Care and Continuing Challenges", "Something is happening: the contemporary consumer and psychiatric survivor movement in historical context", "Evolution of the Antipsychiatry Movement into mental health consumerism", "Antipsiquiatría: Deconstrucción del concepto de enfermedad mental y crítica de la 'razón psiquiátrica, "Anti-Psychiatry and its Legacies (video)", Outline of the psychiatric survivors movement, American Association for the Abolition of Involuntary Mental Hospitalization, The Politics of Experience and The Bird of Paradise, We've Had a Hundred Years of Psychotherapy – And the World's Getting Worse, Foucault's lectures at the Collège de France, I, Pierre Riviere, Having Slaughtered my Mother, my Sister and my Brother, Ethics: Subjectivity and Truth (Essential Works Volume 1), Aesthetics, Method, Epistemology (Essential Works Volume 2), https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anti-psychiatry&oldid=1024666147, Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from January 2014, Articles lacking reliable references from January 2014, CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2021, Pages with login required references or sources, Articles with unsourced statements from December 2017, Articles with unsourced statements from September 2013, Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from January 2014, Articles with unsourced statements from December 2011, Articles with unsourced statements from July 2020, Articles with limited geographic scope from January 2010, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. [5] Alternatives were developed, led in different regions by ex-patient staff, physicians themselves in some cases, and religious and lay philanthropists. [7][8] A broader definition was provided by Geoff Mulgan in a series of lectures and reports from 2006 onwards [9] and in the book Big Mind [10] which proposed a framework for analysing any thinking system, including both human and machine intelligence, in terms of functional elements (observation, prediction, creativity, judgement etc. In this situation, opinions are gathered from the crowd regarding an idea, issue or product. Defoe, Daniel (1728). [156][157] When connected to UNU, groups of distributed users collectively answer questions and make predictions in real-time. [180][181] These theorists are more likely to refer to ecological and collective wisdom and to the role of consensus process in making ontological distinctions than to any form of "intelligence" as such, which they often argue does not exist, or is mere "cleverness". Holocaust historians argued that the medicalization of social programs and systematic euthanasia of people in German mental institutions in the 1930s provided the institutional, procedural, and doctrinal origins of the mass murder of the 1940s. [112][113] Moreover, while a criminal imprisonment has a predetermined and known time of duration, patients are typically committed to psychiatric hospitals for indefinite durations, an unjust and arguably outrageous imposition of fundamental uncertainty. [42], Top-down processes cover group interaction, such as structures, processes, and norms. Although widely described as part of the main anti-psychiatry movement, Szasz actively rejected the term and its adherents; instead, in 1969, he collaborated with Scientology to form the Citizens Commission on Human Rights. [134] Although anti-psychiatry is often attributed to a few famous figures in psychiatry or academia, it has been pointed out that consumer/survivor/ex-patient individuals and groups preceded it, drove it and carried on through it.[135]. The swarm correctly predicted the first four horses, in order, defying 542–1 odds and turning a $20 bet into $10,800. Similar to the g factor (g) for general individual intelligence, a new scientific understanding of collective intelligence aims to extract a general collective intelligence factor c factor for groups indicating a group's ability to perform a wide range of tasks. Solving the game requires "the collective and collaborative efforts of multiple players"; thus the issue of collective and collaborative team play is essential to ARG. "[35], The examples and perspective in this article, Inadequacy of clinical interviews used to diagnose 'diseases', Experiments admitting "healthy" individuals into psychiatric care, Psychiatry and the pharmaceutical industry, Psychiatry as pseudoscience and failed enterprise, Defoe, Daniel (1697). [168][169], Growth of the Internet and mobile telecom has also produced "swarming" or "rendezvous" events that enable meetings or even dates on demand. Schemes were developed to challenge stigma and discrimination, often based on a social model of disability; to assist or encourage people with mental health issues to engage more fully in work and society (for example through social firms), and to involve service users in the delivery and evaluation of mental health services. George Pór defined the collective intelligence phenomenon as "the capacity of human communities to evolve towards higher order complexity and harmony, through such innovation mechanisms as differentiation and integration, competition and collaboration. [12] He later argued that husbands used asylum hospitals to incarcerate their disobedient wives,[13] and in a subsequent pamphlet that wives even did the same to their husbands. [100]:515, Faced with the problem of "madness", Western individualism proved to be ill-prepared to defend the rights of the individual: modern man has no more right to be a madman than medieval man had a right to be a heretic because if once people agree that they have identified the one true God, or Good, it brings about that they have to guard members and nonmembers of the group from the temptation to worship false gods or goods. Typical psychiatric medications include stimulants, antidepressants, anxiolytics, and antipsychotics (neuroleptics). Critics of this view, however, from an anti-psychiatry perspective, are quick to point to the industrial aspects of psychiatric treatment itself as a primary causal factor in this situation that is described as "deteriorating". [100]:496, Civil libertarians warn that the marriage of the State with psychiatry could have catastrophic consequences for civilization. On the Politics of "Collective Intelligence" in Electronic Networks, Task allocation and partitioning of social insects, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Collective_intelligence&oldid=1025221507, Articles with incomplete citations from November 2017, Articles with self-published sources from February 2020, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Alternatives to involuntary hospitalization include the development of non-medical crisis care in the community. [44] Groupthink often hampers collective intelligence by limiting input to a select few individuals or filtering potential Golden Suggestions without fully developing them to implementation. The term appears in sociobiology, political science and in context of mass peer review and crowdsourcing applications. [3][1] In parallel with the theoretical production of the mentioned authors, the Italian physician Giorgio Antonucci questioned the basis themselves of psychiatry through the dismantling of the psychiatric hospitals Osservanza and Luigi Lolli and the liberation – and restitution to life – of the people there secluded. [12] Research further suggest that collectively intelligent groups communicate more in general as well as more equally; same applies for participation and is shown for face-to-face as well as online groups communicating only via writing. Cooper coined the term "anti-psychiatry" in 1967, and wrote the book Psychiatry and Anti-psychiatry in 1971. [12] Furthermore, collective intelligence was found to be related to a group's cognitive diversity[68] including thinking styles and perspectives. The numbers of people labeled "mentally ill", and in treatment, together with the severity of their conditions, have been going up primarily due to the direct efforts of the mental health movement, and mental health professionals, including psychiatrists, and not their detractors. [95][96] Whereas it is controversial whether human intelligence can be enhanced via training,[95][96] a group's collective intelligence potentially offers simpler opportunities for improvement by exchanging team members or implementing structures and technologies. Outside the field of psychiatry, however—e.g. [173] In management theory the use of collective intelligence and crowd sourcing leads to innovations and very robust answers to quantitative issues. Collective intelligence (CI) is shared or group intelligence that emerges from the collaboration, collective efforts, and competition of many individuals and appears in consensus decision making.The term appears in sociobiology, political science and in context of mass peer review and crowdsourcing applications. In some cases, the suspicion of non-psychiatric medical professionals towards the validity of psychiatry was described as anti-psychiatry, as well the criticism of "hard-headed" psychiatrists towards "soft-headed" psychiatrists. Although the movement originally described as anti-psychiatry became associated with the general counter-culture movement of the 1960s, Lidz and Arieti never became involved in the latter. ", The diagnostic label gender identity disorder (GID) was used by the DSM until its reclassification as gender dysphoria in 2013, with the release of the DSM-5. Others involved were L. Ron Hubbard, Michel Foucault, Gilles Deleuze, Félix Guattari, and Erving Goffman. [3][1][2] Thomas Szasz introduced the definition of mental illness as a myth in the book The Myth of Mental Illness (1961), Giorgio Antonucci introduced the definition of psychiatry as a prejudice in the book I pregiudizi e la conoscenza critica alla psichiatria (1986). And that by the end of the 19th century, psychiatrists often had little power in the overrun asylum system, acting mainly as administrators who rarely attended to patients, in a system where therapeutic ideals had turned into mindless institutional routines. A further application of collective intelligence is found in the "Community Engineering for Innovations". The individuals included a graduate student, psychologists, an artist, a housewife, and two physicians, including one psychiatrist. Similarly, demand for further research on possible connections of individual and collective intelligence exists within plenty of other potentially transferable logics of individual intelligence, such as, for instance, the development over time[94] or the question of improving intelligence. The use of interactive new media, particularly the internet, promotes online interaction and this distribution of knowledge between users. [126] Critics point out that often bad ideas, misunderstandings, and misconceptions are widely held, and that structuring of the decision process must favor experts who are presumably less prone to random or misinformed voting in a given context. It is clear that, when co-operation goes from university level to global it has significant benefits. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is administered worldwide typically for severe mental disorders. Epistemic democratic theories refer to the capacity of the populace, either through deliberation or aggregation of knowledge, to track the truth and relies on mechanisms to synthesize and apply collective intelligence. [17], As psychiatry became more professionally established during the nineteenth century (the term itself was coined in 1808 in Germany, as "Psychiatriein") and developed allegedly more invasive treatments, opposition increased. ... C. Promoting choice and rights. [99], The bedrock of political medicine is coercion masquerading as medical treatment. [140] Aldred's CI-Art event in March 2016 involved over four hundred people from the community of Oxford, Nova Scotia, and internationally. [123], According to a 2014 meta-analysis, psychiatric treatment is no less effective for psychiatric illnesses in terms of treatment effects than treatments by practitioners of other medical specialties for physical health conditions. The critical element of gender dysphoria is the presence of clinically significant distress associated with the condition. Collective intelligence strongly contributes to the shift of knowledge and power from the individual to the collective. Flew, Terry and Humphreys, Sal (2005) "Games: Technology, Industry, Culture" in Terry Flew, New Media: An Introduction (2nd edn), Oxford University Press, South Melbourne 101–114. Henry Jenkins proposes that the participatory cultures emerging between games producers, media companies, and the end-users mark a fundamental shift in the nature of media production and consumption. [49], It is theorized that the collective intelligence factor c is an emergent property resulting from bottom-up as well as top-down processes. It is assumed to be an unconscious, random, parallel, and distributed computational process, run in mathematical logic by the social structure. [76] This has not been shown to be directly related to the therapeutic use of stimulants, but to neuroleptics. [15] Their ideas behind their rediscovery of collective intelligence is to ensure that all workers can express themselves without any fear of potential embarrassment. The test aims to measure peoples' theory of mind (ToM), also called 'mentalizing'[57][58][59][60] or 'mind reading',[61] which refers to the ability to attribute mental states, such as beliefs, desires or intents, to other people and in how far people understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions or perspectives different from their own ones. [121] Questionable research practices are known to bias key sources of evidence. Online advertising companies are using collective intelligence to bypass traditional marketing and creative agencies. "[98] In an article published in 1994 by the Journal of Medical Ethics, American psychiatrist Thomas Szasz stated that "the classification by slave owners and slave traders of certain individuals as Negroes was scientific, in the sense that whites were rarely classified as blacks. Other influences on Lacan included poetry and the surrealist movement, including the poetic power of patients' experiences. [12], Engel et al. Peter Russell, Elisabet Sahtouris, and Barbara Marx Hubbard (originator of the term "conscious evolution")[26] are inspired by the visions of a noosphere – a transcendent, rapidly evolving collective intelligence – an informational cortex of the planet. For example, several studies have shown that African Americans are more often diagnosed with schizophrenia than Caucasians,[68] and men more than women. [82], A collective intelligence factor c in the sense of Woolley et al. Three authors came to personify the movement against psychiatry, and two of these were practising psychiatrists. [citation needed], The field of psychology sometimes came into opposition with psychiatry. the game theory and engineering communities. The lower estimates include: • 2-4 in 100,000 (from Kramer's 1994 study of 28,437 patients)[89] • 1 in 10,000 (Boodman's first entry in 1996) • 1 in 1,000 (Impastato's first entry in 1957) • 1 in 200, among the elderly, over 60 (Impastato's in 1957) Higher estimates include: • 1 in 102 (Martin's entry in 1949) • 1 in 95 (Boodman's first entry in 1996) • 1 in 92 (Freeman and Kendell's entry in 1976) • 1 in 89 (Sagebiel's in 1961) • 1 in 69 (Gralnick's in 1946) • 1 in 63, among a group undergoing intensive ECT (Perry's in 1963–1979) • 1 in 38 (Ehrenberg's in 1955) • 1 in 30 (Kurland's in 1959) • 1 in 9, among a group undergoing intensive ECT (Weil's in 1949) • 1 in 4, among the very elderly, over 80 (Kroessler and Fogel's in 1974–1986). Professional self-care is vital to the profes-sion of social work for several reasons: Professional self-care is an essential compo-nent in competent, compassionate, and ethical social work practice, requiring time, energy, and commitment. "[100]:502[102]:494 The entire German nation and its National Socialist politicians learned to think and speak in such terms. [54][55] Analogously, collective intelligence research aims to explore reasons why certain groups perform more intelligently than other groups given that c is just moderately correlated with the intelligence of individual group members. Psychiatry is far more scientific today than it was a century ago, but misperceptions about psychiatry continue to be driven by abuses of the past. A new scientific understanding of collective intelligence defines it as a group's general ability to perform a wide range of tasks. [25] Other antecedents are Vladimir Vernadsky and Pierre Teilhard de Chardin's concept of "noosphere" and H.G. [30] The full impact has yet to be felt but the anti-globalization movement, for example, relies heavily on e-mail, cell phones, pagers, SMS and other means of organizing. Much influenced by the Dada and surrealist enthusiasms of the day, he considered dreams, thoughts and visions no less real than the "outside" world. The team administered the Social Norms and Beliefs about GBV Scale to 602 community members across Mogadishu, Somalia and Yei and Warrup, South Sudan. According to Eric S. Raymond (1998) and JC Herz (2005), open source intelligence will eventually generate superior outcomes to knowledge generated by proprietary software developed within corporations (Flew 2008). [106]:17 When faced with demands for measures to curtail smoking in public, binge-drinking, gambling or obesity, ministers say that "we must guard against charges of nanny statism". On October 7, 2016, the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE) at the University of Toronto announced that they had established a scholarship for students doing theses in the area of antipsychiatry. Part 1: Conceptual and Definitional Issues in Psychiatric Diagnosis", Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine, "Classifications in psychiatry: a conceptual history", "Are psychiatrists an endangered species? [84] None of these investigations considered team members' individual intelligence scores as control variables. These trends have been thematically linked to the later 20th century anti-psychiatry movement. [61] Since the era of Kraepelin, psychiatrists have been trying to differentiate mental disorders by using clinical interviews. Devine and Philips[107] (2001) showed in a meta-analysis that mean cognitive ability predicts team performance in laboratory settings (.37) as well as field settings (.14) – note that this is only a small effect. [4] Psychiatrists involved in this challenge included Thomas Szasz, Timothy Leary, Giorgio Antonucci, R. D. Laing, Franco Basaglia, Theodore Lidz, Silvano Arieti, and David Cooper. [180][181], Harsh critics of artificial intelligence on ethical grounds are likely to promote collective wisdom-building methods, such as the new tribalists and the Gaians. Anti-psychiatry considers psychiatry a coercive instrument of oppression due to an unequal power relationship between doctor and patient, and a highly subjective diagnostic process. According to Foucault, the most prominent therapeutic technique instead became to confront patients with a healthy sound will and orthodox passions, ideally embodied by the physician.

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